Inequality in development of tourism industry with emphasis on Iran

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Assistant Professor of geography and urban planning, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran

2 PhD candidate in geography and urban planning, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Introduction
This paper has a philosophical and epistemological view to examine inequality in tourism development and studies. This research emphasizes on the debates underlying perspectives and paradigms for exploration of weaknesses of tourism knowledge and studies in methodological change. The purpose of this paper is to study inequalities in development of tourism industry and to understand the effects of tourism in Iran, in combination with agency and structure in the tourism industry in Iran.
The growing synergy of tourism and culture has been one of the major themes in tourism development and marketing in recent years. The tourism industry, one of the fastest growing industry at the global scale, generates jobs and income especially in those layers of the job market that are most severely disadvantaged by economic conjuncture of variables including non-specialised work, reputedly low-skills part-time jobs and female works. By investing in cultural attractions and infrastructure, the cities seek to secure a good position in the international tourism map, developing an industry that is sustainable and plentiful in synergies with other strategic sectors of the urban economy. Tourism also represents an indispensable source of financial resources for the preservation and restoration of the heritage that otherwise faces shrinking budgets and state transfers.
 According to cultural statue of Iran, the country has to pay attention to tourism policy-making in national and regional levels. The main goal of this paper is to study the role of tourism policies in inequlities in tourism industry. The central issue is: urban management using the tools of development planning, by expansion of social justice for all populations to increase economy growth rate.
 
Methodology
Critical realism presents a methodological perspective which takes a critical stance towards positivism and hermeneutics in one hand and tries to integrate strong points from both theories of science on the other hand. Contemporary critical realism is formulated by Roy Bhaskar and his like-minded circle of British colleagues. If we take explanation to be the core purpose of science critical realism, it seems to emphasise on thinking instead of experiencing, and especially the process of abstraction from the domains of the actual and the empirical world to the transfactual mechanisms of the real world. This kind of thinking made Bhaskar talking about ‘transcendental realism’ in his early writings, emphasising the crossing of the division between the empirical and the speculative activities of scientific works. The experienced world of events is not explainable in terms of the empirical facts, but they can be incorporated in non-experienced mechanisms incorporated in objects which may be within or outside our domain of investigation.
In this study, relationships between the agents that are producer of development are classified based on critical realism into two categories and three levels: mechanisms or policies for tourism (the real) provides guidelines for the tourism industry as well as the agents and stakeholders (the actual). The instructions in different ways to produce different results have already been experienced in the cities (the empirical).
 
Results and discussion
This shows that Positivism Approches in the study of tourism inequlities in Iran ignore participation of stakeholders in urban policy and considers governmental power as a referee for several stakeholder groups and ignore great sociospatial forces. In this respect, these approaches ignore economic-political processes and structures and slures formal and informal relations between governmental and non-governmental actors to prepare urban tourism planning. Since such agents reflect dominant forms of economic and social inequalities and reproduce inequlity in nature of tourism spaces.
To borrow useful ideas from three explanatory paradigms, it is clear that a comprehensive explanatory theory can be created that can simultaneously meet experimental, interpretational and structural requirements. With the proper combination of these three approaches, critical realism can achieve their merits based on the integration.
The relation between the actors who produce results of development categories on the basis of critical realism: 1) mechanisms and policies of tourism in national level in tourism industry; 2) stakeholders in local level (Actual) who suggest agendas in defferent ways to produce various results. Cities play an intermediate role between wider national policies and their results in local level.
There is close relations between tourism activities and geographical places in their historical background. Since 1977, tourism in Iran was changed to reflect decisions of authorities in cities on framework of government’s policies. 
 
Conclusion
The plans and policies for national development (the real) has played considerable role in development procedure after and before Islamic Revolution in Iran. On the other hand, it needs to pay more serious attention to importance of participation (the actual) in nature of developmental plans that can be effective on life people. In this paper, development plans and policies are as an example of social mechanisms in realistic approach. We can discuss about the values of sustainable tourism with philosophical and epistemological assistance of tourism. This study is based on the idea that opportunity from policies of tourism development has the ability to maximize products and other needed elements to promote sustainable tourism. This can be concluded that the cities aspiring international destinations for cultural tourism should not neglect the quality of human capital and training, not only in the lower grades of the job market but also for tourist entrepreneurs and public and private managers. The desired pattern of inequality in the tourism industry for Iran's society is sustainable for critical tourism model and policy-making in this Framework.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

  1. افروغ، عماد، 1374، فلسفی اندیشی فضایی، مجلۀ تحقیقات جغرافیایی، شمارۀ 39. صص 24- 54.
  2.  ایدینگتن، جی. ام، 1374، اکوتوریسم، ترجمۀ اسماعیل کهرم، انتشارات سازمان محیط‌زیست، تهران.
  3. باتامور، تام، 1370، مکتب فرانکفورت، ترجمۀ حسینعلی نوذری، نی، تهران.
  4. بلیکی، نورمن، 1384، طراحی پژوهش‌های اجتماعی. ترجمۀ حسن چاوشیان، نی، تهران.
  5. بنادرویش، فاطمه، 1382،  نقش دولت و مدیریت بخش عمومی در پیشبرد و ارتقای برنامه های جهانگردی، مجلۀ مطالعات گردشگری، شمارۀ 1. صص 23- 38.
  6. پرتوی، ملوک، 1387، تأثیر عملکرد بخش گردشگری بر شاخص‌های کلان اقتصادی طی برنامۀ سوم توسعۀ اقتصادی، مجلۀ اقتصادی، شمارۀ 77- 78. صص 5- 14.
  7. تقوایی، مسعود و محمود اکبری، 1388، مقدمه‌ای بر برنامه‌ریزی و مدیریت گردشگری شهری، پیام علوی، اصفهان.
  8. حافظ­نیا، محمدرضا و عیسی رمضانی دارابی، 1382، بررسی تطبیقی بازتاب‌های فضایی سیاست‌های گردشگری در قبل و بعد از انقلاب، مطالعۀ موردی بابلسر، تحقیقات جغرافیایی، شمارۀ 71، صص 47- 59.
  9. حافظ­نیا، محمدرضا، 1381، جغرافیای سیاسی ایران، سمت، تهران.
  10. حامد، محبوبه، 1389، گردشگری و برنامه‌ریزی منطقه‌ای، اطلاع‌رسانی و کتابداری: کتاب ماه علوم اجتماعی، دورۀ جدید، شمارۀ 32، صص 130- 133.
  11. حیدری چیانه، رحیم و کریم حسین­زاده دلیر، 1382، جستاری پیرامون ارزیابی صنعت توریسم در ایران، جغرافیا و برنامه‌ریزی، شمارۀ 13، صص 59- 94.
  12. زاهدی، شمس السادات، 1382، چالش‌های توسعۀ پایدار از منظر اکوتوریسم، مدرس علوم انسانی، شمارۀ 30. صص 18- 21.
  13. سازمان ایرانگردی و جهانگردی، معاونت تحقیقات، آموزش و برنامه‌ریزی، 1378، تعاریف متغیرهای آماری، تهران.
  14. سازمان جهانی جهانگردی، 1379، برنامه‌ریزی گردشگری در سطح ملی و منطقه‌ای، ترجمۀ بهرام رنجبران و محمد زاهدی، جهاد دانشگاهی، اصفهان.
  15. سایر، آندرو، 1385، روش در علوم اجتماعی با رویکردی رئالیستی، ترجمۀ عماد افروغ، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، تهران.
  16. سرلک، احمد، 1376، بررسی وضعیت صنعت گردشگری کشور در پس‌انداز ارزی و صادرات غیرنفتی، سازمان برنامه‌وبودجۀ استان مرکزی، نشریۀ شماره 140، صص 15- 20.
  17. سرلک، احمد، 1379، صنعت گردشگری و پنجاه سال برنامه‌ریزی در ایران، مجلۀ علوم سیاسی، شمارۀ 157- 158، صص 226- 239.
  18. شکویی، حسین، 1378، اندیشه‌های نو در فلسفۀ جغرافیا، مؤسسۀ جغرافیایی و کارتوگرافی گیتاشناسی، تهران.
  19. شهابیان، پویان، 1390، بررسی نقش و اثرات گردشگری شهری در توسعۀ پایدار شهر با تأکید بر ادراک ساکنان، مجلۀ آرمانشهر، شمارۀ 7.صص 121-132.
  20. صمدی، بهرنگ، 1379، موانع و مشکلات سرمایه‌گذاری خارجی در صنایع زیربنایی جمهوری اسلامی ایران (صنعت نفت)، پایان‌نامۀ کارشناسی ارشد، دانشگاه علوم و فنون مازندران، بهشهر.
  21. عاملی، سعیدرضا، 1380، تعامل جهانی‌شدن، شهروندی و دین، نامۀ علوم اجتماعی، دورۀ 9، شمارۀ 1، صص 167- 200.
  22. غفاری، امین و معصومه ترکی هرچگانی، 1390، تحلیلی بر کارکرد گردشگری در ایجاد اشتغال و درآمد ناخالص ملی، فصلنامۀ سپهر، شمارۀ 77، صص 48- 55.
  23. فتوتیان، علی و حسن عبدی، 1391، بررسی رابطۀ انسان‌شناسی و روش‌شناسی در پارادایم‌های اثبات‌گرایی و رئالیسم انتقادی، مجلۀ معرفت فرهنگی و اجتماعی، سال سوم، شمارۀ 11، صص 87- 100.
  24. فرهودی، رحمت‌الله و محمود شورچه، 1383، برآورد ظرفیت برد گردشگری معبد آناهیتای شهر کنگاور، فصلنامۀ مطالعات مدیریت گردشگری، شمارۀ 7، صص 19- 45.
  25. کارگر، بهمن، 1386، توسعه، شهرنشینی و صنعت گردشگری در ایران، انتشارات سازمان جغرافیایی نیروهای مسلح، تهران.
  26. لی، جان، 1378، گردشگری و توسعه در جهان سوم، ترجمۀ رکن‌الدین افتخاری و امین صالحی، شرکت نشر و چاپ بازرگانی وابسته به مؤسسۀ مطالعات و پژوهش‌های بازرگانی، تهران.
  27. مجیدی، محمدرضا، 1389، سیاست گردشگری خارجی در ایران: جستجوی الگوی مطلوب، فصلنامۀ سیاست-مجله دانشکدۀ حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دورۀ 40، شمارۀ 4، صص 257- 272.
  28. محمدپور، احمد، مهدی علیزاده و مهدی رضایی، 1390، مقدمه‌ای بر بنیان‌های فلسفی و روش‌شناختی رئالیسم انتقادی، مجلۀ اسلام و علوم اجتماعی، سال سوم، شمارۀ 5، صص 79- 106.
  29. مطوف، شریف، 1376، نگاهی به برنامه‌ریزی منطقه‌گرایی زیستی و امکان استفاده از آن در برنامه‌ریزی منطقه‌ای در ایران، مجلۀ برنامه‌ریزی و بودجه، شمارۀ 15، صص 47- 58.
  30. موسوی شفایی، مسعود، امین بیدختی علی‌اکبر و اسماعیل شهابی، 1391، تأثیر بی‌ثباتی سیاسی خاورمیانه بر صنعت گردشگری ایران پس از 11 سپتامبر 2001، فصلنامۀ روابط خارجی، سال چهارم، شمارۀ 2، صص 211- 239.
  31. میلر، کاترین، ۱۳۷۷، ارتباطات سازمانی، ترجمۀ آذر قبادی، مدیریت صنعتی، تهران.
  32. هال، کالین، مایکل و جان ام. جنکینز، 1378، سیاست‌گذاری گردشگری، ترجمهۀ سید محمد اعرابی و داود ایزدی، دفتر پژوهش‌های فرهنگی، تهران.
    1. Afrogh, E., 1995, Spatial Philosophical thinking, Journal of Geographical Research, No. 39, PP. 24-54. (In Persian)
    2. Airey, D., 2008, In search of a mature subject?, Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, Vol. 7, No. 2, PP. 101- 103.
    3. Ameli, S. R., 2001, Intraction of Globalisation, Citizenship and Religion, Journal of Social Sciences Letter, Vol. 17, Issue 1, PP. 167- 200. (In Persian)
    4. Amin, A. and Thrift, N., 2000, What kind of Economic Theory for what Kind of Economic Geography? Antipode, vol.32, PP. 4-9.
    5. Ashley, C., Roe, D. and Goodwin, H., 2001,a: Pro-poor Tourism Strategies: Making Tourism Work for the Poor – A Review of Experience, London: Overseas Development Institute.
    6.  Ashley, C., Roe, D. and Goodwin, H., 2001, b: Making Tourism Work for the Poor: Strategies and Challenges in Southern Africa Development Southern Africa. Vol. 19, No. 1, PP. 61- 82.
    7. Archer, M. et al, 1998, Critical Realism: Essential Readings, London: Routledge.
    8. Armstrong, H. and Taylor, J., 2000, Regional Economics and Policy, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
    9. Ayikoru, M., Tribe, J. and Airey, D., 2009, Reading tourism education: Neoliberalism unveiled, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 36, No. 2, PP. 191- 221.
    10. Banadarvish, F., 2003, The Role of State and Management of Public Sector in Progress of Tourism Plans, Journal of Tourism Studies, No. 1, PP. 23- 38. (In Persian)
    11. Batmore, T., 1991, Frankfort School, Translated by: HosseinAli Nozari, Ney Press, Tehran. (In Persian)
    12. Belayki, N., 2005, Design of Social Researches, Translated by: Hassan Chavoshian, Ney Press, Tehran. (In Persian)
    13. Bhaskar, R., 1979, The Possibility of Naturalism: A Philosophical Critique of the Contemporary Human Sciences, Harvester, Brighton, Blackwell Publishing.
    14. Blomley, 1994, Law, Space and the Geographies of Power, London: Routledge.
    15. Brundtland, G.H., 1987, Our Common Future, University Press, Oxford.
    16. Bryant, C. and Jary, D., (Eds.), 2001, Modes of Theorizing Structure and Agency (Based on The Contemporary Giddens), Palgrave. New York.
    17. Bullock, H., Mountford, L. and Stanley, R., 2001, Better Policy Making, Centre for Management and Policy Studies, Cabinet Office, London.
    18. Christiansen, L., Demery, L. and Paternostro, S., 2005, Reforms, Remoteness and Risk in Africa: Understanding Inequality and Poverty during the 1990s. In Kanbur, R. and 301.
    19. Cochrane, A., 1987, What a Difference that Place Makes: the New Structuration of Locality. Antipode, Vol. 19, PP. 63- 354.
    20. Coetzee, J. et al, 2001, Development Theory, Policy and Practice, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
    21. Cole, S., and Morgan, N., (Eds.), 2010, Tourism and Inequality: Problems and Prospects. Cabi, Oxford.
    22. Collier, A., 2000, Critical Realism: An Introduction to Roy Bhaskar Philosophy of Science, London: Verso.
    23. Dean, K. et al, 2006, Realism, Arxism and Method, in Realism Philosophy and Social Science, New York: Palgrave McMillan.
    24. Farhodi, R. and Shorcheh, M., 2003, Estimation of Carring Capacity of Tourism in Temple of Anahita, Kangavar, Quarterly of Tourism Management Studies, No. 7, PP. 19- 45. (In Persian)
    25. Faulkner, B., Moscardo, G. and Laws, E., 2000, Tourism in the 21st. Century, Routledge, London.
    26. Fleetwood, S. and Ackroyd, S., 2004, Critical Realist Applications in Organization and Management Studies. Critical Realism: Interventions. London: Routledge.
    27. Fotovatian, A. and Abdi, H., 2011, Investigation of Relation Anthropology and Methodology in Approaches of Positivism and Critical Realism, Third Year, No. 11, PP. 87- 100. (In Persian)
    28. Franklin, A., 2007, The Problem with Tourism Theory, in The Critical Turn in Tourism Studies. Edited by Irena Ateljevic, Annette Pritchard, and Nigel Morgan, Oxford: Elsevier, PP. 131- 148.
    29. Ghafari, A. and Torki Harchegani, M., 2010, Analysis on Tourism Function in Development of Employment and GDP, Journal of Sepehr, No. 77, PP. 48- 55. (In Persian)
    30. Goodsoon, L., (Eds), 2004, Qualitative research in tourism: Ontologies, epistemologies, andmethodologies, Routledge, London.
    31. Habermas, J., 1989, Knowledge and Human Interests. Oxford: Polity Press.
    32. Hafeznia, M. R. and Ramezani Darabi, I., 2003, Comparative Study of Spatial Reflections of Tourism in Pre- and Post-Revelotion: Case Study Babol, Geographical Research, winter, No. 71, PP. 47- 59. (In Persian)
    33. Hafeznia, M. R., 2002, Political Geography of Iran, Samt Press, Tehran. (In Persian)
    34. Hall, C. and Jenkinz, J. M., 1998, Tourism Policy-Making, Translated by: Seyyed Mohammad Erabi and Davood Izadi, Cultural Research office, Tehran. (In Persian)
    35. Hall, C. M., 1994, Tourism and Politics: Policy, Power and Place, Wiley and Sons, Chichester.
    36. Hamed, H., 2010, Tourism and Regional Planning, Library science, Month Book of Social Sciences, New Period, Aban, No. 32, PP. 130- 133. (In Persian)
    37. Harre, R. and Madden, H., 1975, Causal Powers: A Theory of Natural Necessity. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
    38. Harrison, D., 1992, Tourism and Less Development Countries, John Wiley and Sons, London.
    39. Harrison, D., 2001, Introduction. In D. Harrison (Ed.), Tourism in the less developed world: Issues and cases, CABI: Oxford, PP. 1- 22.
    40. Henri, J. and Journeault, M., 2008, Environmental Performance Indicators: An Empirical Study of Canadian Manufacturing Firms, Journal of Environmental Management, No. 87, PP.165- 176.
    41. Heydari Chianeh, R. and Hosseinzadeh Dalir, K., 2003, Inquery About Evaluation of Tourism Industry in Iran, Geography and Planning, No. 13, PP. 59- 94. (In Persian)
    42. Higgins-Desbiolles, F., 2006, More than an ‘‘Industry’’: The Forgotten Power of Tourism as a Social Force. Tourism Management, No. 27, PP. 1192- 1208.
    43. Indington, G. M., 1995, Ecotourism, Translated by: E. Kahrom, Press of Department of Environment, Tehran. (In Persian)
    44. Johnson, S., 2002, Emergence: The Connected lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software, Simon and Schuster, New York.
    45. Johnston, R.J., 1986, Philosophy and Human Geography: An Introduction to Contemporary Approaches. 2nd Ed. Baltimore, Maryland: Edward Arnold.
    46. Junor, A., 2001, Critical Realism Comes to Management. Journal of Critical Realism, Vol. 4, PP. 30- 34.
    47. Kargar, B., 2007, Development, Urbanisation and Tourism Industry in Iran, Armed Forces Geographical Organization Publication, Tehran. (In Persian)
    48. Lee, J., 1998, Tourism and Development in Third World, Translated by: Roknodin Eftekhari and Amin Salehi, Institute for Trade Studies and Research, Tehran. (In Persian)
    49. Lew, A. A., Hall, C. M. and Williams, A. M., 2004, A Companion to Tourism. Oxford.
    50. Majidi, M. R., 2010, External Tourism Policy in Iran: Search for desirable Pattern, Journal of Siyasat the Faculty of Law and Political Science, winter, Vol. 40, Issue 4, PP. 257- 272. (In Persian)
    51. Martin, R and Sunley, P., 1998, Slow Convergence? The New Endogenous Growth Theory and Regional Development, Economic Geography, Vol. 74, No. 3, PP. 201- 27.
    52. Mathieson, A. and Wall, G., 1995, Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts, 4th Edition. London: Longman.
    53. McKercher, B., 1993, Some Fundamental Truths about Tourism: Understanding Tourism‘s Social and Environmental Impacts. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, vol. 1, No. 1, PP. 23- 36.
    54. Miller, C., 1997, Organizational Relations, Translated by: Azar Ghobadi, Industrial Management, Tehran. (In Persian)
    55. Minnaert, L., Maitland, R. and Miller, G., 2006, Social Tourism and its Ethical Foundations. Tourism Culture and Communication, Vol. 7, No. 1, PP. 7- 17.
    56. Mohammad Pour, A., Alizadeh, M. and Rezaei, M., 2010, Introduction on Foundations of Philosophy and Methodology of Critical Realism, Journal of Islam and Social Sciences, Vol. 3, Issue. 5, PP. 76- 106. (In Persian)
    57. Mosavi Shafaei, M., 2011, The Impact of Political Instability on the Tourism Industry ofthe Middle East after the September 11, 2001, Quarterly Foreign Relations, Vol. 4, Issue. 2, PP. 211-239. (In Persian)
    58. Motavaf, Sh., 1996, A Glance of Bioregional Planning and Possibility of Use of it in Regional Planning in Iran, Journal of Plan and Budget, No. 15, PP. 47- 58. (In Persian)
    59. Mowforth, M. and Munt, I., 1998, Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism in the Third World, Routledge, London.
    60. Mumford, L., 1938, The culture of cities. New York City, Harcourt, Brace and Company, PP.586- 1938.
    61. Nash, D., 2007, The study of tourism: Anthropological and sociological beginnings. Amsterdam, Elsivier.
    62. Naude, W. and Waldo, K., 2003, An Inquiry into Cities and their Role in Sub-national Economic Growth in South Africa. Journal of African Economies, Vol. 12, No. 4, PP. 75- 473.
    63. Organization of Tourism, Department of Research, Education and Planning, 1999, Definitions of Statistical Variables, Tehran. (In Persian)
    64. Partovi, M., 2008, Impact of Performance of Tourism Sector on Macro Economic Indices thorough Third Development Programme, Economic Journal, No. 77- 78, PP. 5- 14. (In Persian)
    65. Samadi, B., 1999, Obstacles of External Investment in Infrastucture Industry of Islamic Republic of Iran (Oil Industry), Thesis of M. A., Mazandaran University of Science and Technology (MUST), Behshahr. (In Persian)
    66. Sarlak, A., 1997, Investigation of Tourism Industry in Iran on Foreign Currency Savings and Non-oil Exports, Plan and Budget Organization of Markazi Province, No. 140, PP. 15- 20. (In Persian)
    67. Sarlak, A., 2000, Tourism Industry and Fifty Years Planning in Iran, Journal of Political Sciences, No. 157- 158, PP. 226- 239. (In Persian)
    68. Sarre, P., 1987, Realism in Practice, Area, Vol. 19, PP. 3- 10.
    69. Sawyer, K., 2004, The Mechanisms of Emergence. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Vol. 34, No. 2, PP. 82- 260.
    70. Sayer, A., 2000, Realism and Social Science, Sage Publications, London.
    71. Sayer, A., 2006, Method in Social Sciences: A Realist Approaches, Translated by: Emad Afrogh, Institute for humanities and cultural studies (IHCS), Tehran. (In Persian)
    72. Shahabian, P., 2010, Investigation of Role and Effects of Urban Tourism in Sustainable Development of City with Emphasis on Residents’ Perceptions, Journal of Armanshahr, Vol. 7, No. 7, PP. 121-132. (In Persian)
    73. Shakoei, H., 1999, New Thoughts in Philosophy of Geography, Institute of Geography and Cartography Gitashenasi, Tehran. (In Persian)
    74. Shaw, G. and Williams, A. M., 2002, Critical Issues in Tourism: A Geographical Perspective, 2nd Edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
    75. Sheppard, E., 1990, Modelling the Capitalist Space Economy: Bringing society and space back, Economic Geography, No. 66, PP. 201- 228.
    76. Sinclair, M. and Mike, S., 1997, The Economic of Tourism, Routledge, London.
    77. Smith, D., 1987, Geography, Inequality and Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    78. Soja, E., 1980, The socio-spatial dialectic, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 70, PP. 207- 225.
    79. Taghvaei, M. and Mahmod Akbari, I., 2009, Introduction of Planning and Management of Urban Tourism, Payam Alavi Press, Esfehan. (In Persian)
    80. Tribe, J., 2004, Knowing about tourism: Epistemological issues. In L. Goodsoon and J. Phillimore, Qualitative Research in Tourism: Ontologies, Epistemologies and Methodologies
    81. Tribe, J., 2006, The Truth about Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 33, No. 2, PP. 360- 381.
    82. Tribe, J., 2010, Tribes, Territories and Networks in the Tourism Academy, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 37, No. 1, PP. 7- 33.
    83. Venables, A.J. (Editors), Spatial Inequality and Development London: Oxford University Press January.
    84. WTO, 2000, Tourism Planning in National and Reginal Level, Translated by: Bahram Ranjbaran and Mohammad Zahedi, Jahad Deneshgahi Press, Esfehan. (In Persian)
    85. Yirenkyi-Boateng, S., 2009, Twenty-one Steps to Sustainable Development, Unpublished paper, City of Tshwane (Pretoria); Centre for African Renaissance Studies, University of South Africa.
    86. Yirenkyi-Boateng, S., 2010, Development Plans and the Sustainable Development Agenda in Africa: How Critical Realist Conceptualization Can Help. Journal of Critical Realism, Vol. 9, No. 3, PP. 328- 352.
    87. Zahedi, Sh., 2003 , Challenges of Sustainable Tourism from View of Point of Ecotourism, Moddares of Human Sciences, No. 30, PP. 18- 21. (In Persian)
Human Geography Research
Volume 49, Issue 4
January 2018
Pages 769-789

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 25 December 2015
  • Revise Date: 13 February 2016
  • Accept Date: 14 February 2016

Share

How to cite

Statistics